World’s biggest flying bird

Pygmy seahorse

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Syngnathiformes
Family: Syngnathidae
Genus: Hippocampus

Pygmy seahorse is also called as Bargibanti’s seahorse. The pygmy seahorse belongs to the family Syngnathidae. The seahorse is tiny and can grow up to a heath of about 2.4 cm. The sea horse is found in two different colors. They are grey with red tubercles and yellow with orange tubercles.

The pygmy seahorse is found in the coastal regions along the southern Japan and Indonesia to Northern Australia and New Caledonia. They are found at a depth of about 10 to 40 m.



The lower portion males abdomen has a brood pouch in which the females lay the eggs. The eggs are fertilized by the males and incubated until the birth.

There are nine species of pygmy seahorse:

• Hippocampus bargibanti
• Hippocampus colemani
• Hippocampus debelius
• Hippocampus denise
• Hippocampus minotaur
• Hippocampus pontohi
• Hippocampus satomiae
• Hippocampus severnsi
• Hippocampus waleananus

The Animal Odd Couple

Abyssinian Ground-hornbill

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Aves

Order: Coraciiformes

Family: Bucerotidae

Subfamily: Bucorvinae

Genus: Bucorvus

Species: B. abyssinicus

These birds are in general seen alone or in petite family groups, on foot in a somewhat splendid method crosswise the landscape. They feed on little vertebrates, large insects and other invertebrates as glowing as fruit and seeds. Even though they are principally seen on the floor they are competent of voyage when worried. He birds of this variety are not simply fruit eaters; they also provide for on mice, lizards, snakes, geckos, and some insects. They construct their nests in crevice. Females of this kind are not sealed-in like birds of this type.

Day octopus (octopus cyanea)

The day octopus is also called as reef octopus, cyane’s octopus the big blue octopus. As the name indicates it hunts during the day. It has the ability to change the overall color and texture of the skin. Since it has the ability to change the color it can easily blend and so it looks like a natural rock.

The day octopus is little larger than the normal one and has the body length of about 16 cm and legs of about 80 cm. This huge size does not prevent them for becoming invisible to the predators.

In normal condition the octopus appears in brown color with dark oval patches. These oval patches resembles like the eye of the octopus.
These day octopus feeds on fishes, crabs, bivalves, and shrimps. This octopus can be easily identified by the empty shell and remains of the prey that has been littered in the ocean floor.

The day octopuses are found in the indo pacific region where there are coral reefs. The day octopuses are not poisonous.

Battle at Kruger

Here is a battle between the lions and buffalos at Kruger.

The baby buffalo is being attacked by a pride of lions. As the lions take the prey in to the near by lake a crocodile emerges and try to catch the prey from the lions pride before the whole herd of buffalo comes in the scene. The whole herd of the buffaloes fights with the lion pride saving the baby buffalo. How mystery is the animal kingdom?

What an amazing scene to watch!

A blind amphibian – Olm

Olm is a blind amphibian that lives in the water that flow underground though the limestone region. This species is especially found in the caves of dinaric krst of southern Europe. This is the only species that belongs to the genus Proteus. This species is also called as “Human fish” because of its skin color. This species is blind and can live for 100 years and this species can live without food for a period of 10 years.

This blind vertebrate hunts its prey in complete darkness. Though it is blindness it has a well developed sensory and hearing system. This skin covered eye of this pale organism is still sensitive to lights.

Today this species is threatened with more pollution and its habitat disturbance.

Chickadees

Chickadees are common in North America. Chickadees can been, seen flying in small flocks and very close to the humans. When they are very close to the humans, they can take away the nuts and sunflower seeds from a stretched hand of the humans.

Want to hand feed the wild chickadees

Temp to attract the wild chickadees with the nuts and sunflower seeds in the fall or winter. Since during summer and spring they all will be busy, building their nest and taking care of their young ones. Moreover, during this time they feed mostly on insects so only during the fall and winter it is good to feed the chickadees.
From the month of August to February, the chickadees start forming flocks. Each flock contains a territory bird and the birds in a particular flock follow the established routes to search their foods. Chickadee visiting a feeder regularly is almost the same bird. The large part of the chickadees are the nuts and seeds and the as the summersets in there are few insects those enter into their diet.

Flatworms

Habitat

Flat worms seem to habits in a few environments. Those habitats include ponds, sea, tropical forest floors and streams. But in general flatworms can be seen in any damp areas.

Diet

When it comes to diet the flatworms are generally herbivores when they are young and as an adult they are carnivores. When they are young they eat algae and other plants and as they grow they eat meat.

Importance

Though harmful, flatworms are also useful to mankind. Because they eat the insidious snail thus helping to develop a balanced food chain.

Reproduction

Reproduction in flatworms is very interesting. The male and female reproductive organs are found in a single worm. So the worms can fertilize themselves. Sometimes they cross fertilize to fertilize another female and can fertilized themselves.

Harm To Humans

Flatworms lead to Schistosomiosis the second deadly human disease. This disease affects the central nervous system of the body. The disease is also known as snail fever. This disease can lead to serious liver damage and the parasite can even kill a life.

Examples

flukes and tapeworms are found to live in the intestine of a living organism.

Turbellaira, trematodes and planarian are found in waters and are harmful to the sea creatures.

Hookworms Disease in Dogs

Hookworm is very common disease in dogs life and it appears quit frequently in dogs also. Most of the case, puppies get infected by it. The hookworms are nothing but some internal parasites which could be the reason of your puppies death.

The aged dogs are infected rarely by hookworms and once if they infected, it will cured quickly as it is not the severe one among aged dogs. But as a pet owner you should have to take the best care of your dog as the parasites could damage a serious one for your dog.

Reason of this disease: Apart from hookworms, your pet dogs could be infected by whipworms, tapeworms and roundworms also. The disease hookworms are caused of soil that have worms in it. The dogs especially the puppies like to eat the eggs of the worm. So larvae are able to get involved in lungs first and then directly to the whole bloodstream of your dog.

Tube worm

Tubeworms scientific name - Riftia pachyptila looks like a giant lipstick. It lives in the Pacific Ocean at a depth of one mile. They size of the tube worm is about 3m long. Tough natural material called Chitin makes the worms white tube home.

Tubeworms like other worms have eyes, stomach and mouth. They feed on millions of bacteria. They use chemical based food making process called as chemosynthesis to catch the prey.

Tube worms depend on bacteria that live on their bodies for food and energy. These tube worms also provide food for the deep sea dwellers. The worms red plume is chewed by the fish and crabs in the sea.

Five of the best: Zoos

Bronx Zoo, New York

In US Bronx zoo is the largest metropolitan zoo. The zoo has 265 acres of land for parklands and naturalistic habitats. This is the worlds largest man made rainforest and is the home of many endangered species.

Taronga Zoo, Sydney



Taronga zoo has all the furry animal friends from all over the world. You can reach the zoo from the central Sydney with 12 minutes. Few of the Australia’s best loved creatures can be headed here.

Night Safari, Singapore



This is the world first night park zoo built especially to watch the nocturnal species at night. The safari is divided into eight geographical zones. These zones can be watched either on foot via three walking trails, or by tram.

Whipsnade Animal Park, UK



Whipsnade has about 2500 animals in 600 acres of land along the country side. We can watch cheeky chimp Elvis, faster land animal the cheetah rock etc.

Hannover Adventure Zoo



This is the zoo that has Artificial Rivers which carry visitors to closely watch the animals. The main aim of the zoo is to save the exiting animals and to promote the creation of natural environments.

Keeping Chinchillas as Pets

Chinchillas are attractive, sociable and highly active animals. Since chinchillas need plenty of space, time and attention considering it as a pet is quite uncomfortable. They originate from South America and can live for more than 15 years. They require one hour of exercise daily and are more active during evening and at night.

Housing

Chinchillas can be kept in a cage sized 85*100*40 and should be kept indoor as they cannot withstand the extremes of temperature. Chinchillas love climbing so platforms, ramps and perches can be placed in their cage. The cage should not be kept out focusing on direct sunlight and away from draughts. A bed can be provide for sleeping.

Feeding

Naturally chinchillas are herbivores that feed on fibrous and dry vegetation. Pellet food makes an ideal diet for the pet chinchilla’s and can be served along with plenty of fresh hay.

Tips for a happy healthy Chinchilla

Chinchilla should be provided with a sand bath daily. It is essential for its good condition. The sand for the bath is available in all pet shops and the bath should be kept about 25 cm deep along with lot of space for the chinchilla to move around. And the sand can be changed once in a week.

For a healthy life of chinchilla following tips can be used.

1. A good balanced diet
2. Clean dry housing, cleaned once a week with a gentle antiseptic
3. No sudden changes in temperature
4. Water bottle and feed bowls cleaned daily
5. Fruit tree branch to help wear their continually growing teeth
6. Daily 20 minute sand bath
7. At least one hour of daily exercise

Animal wonders color changing species

In the world there are most extraordinary species that are able to change their body color according to the environment.

They are:

1.Side swimming bottom feeding flounder

2.Shape and species shifting mimic octopus

3.Classic color changing chameleon lizards

4.Insect stalking duo tone spider

5.Madly laughing quick changing tree frog

6.Shell switching faux ladybug beetle

7.Arctic foxes and other seasonal color shifters

If you notice the picture clearly you will be able to see a lizard the blends perfectly. At the times the ability to change color seems to be an animal super power.

Some species are still more exciting that they can change their body shape as well the color according to the surrounding. Outfit change is normal for other species and it is seasonal as this helps them to avoid their predators. But this culled species are remarkable ones in the animal history.

First lungless frog discovered

In the jungles of Borneo a frog that breathes through its skin has been discovered. The frog does not posses lungs for its respiration. The biologist Bickford said that “it’s like a cookie, it’s almost completely flat. So initially when you pick up in the water you know this thing is strange”. The frog is so ugly as well as so cute. The frog is named as Barbourula kalimantanensis.

In the globe many frogs breathe through lungs but the Bornean flat headed frog is the one without the lungs. It appears that the frog has shed its lungs millions of years ago to adapt themselves to the fast flowing cold water rivers. Since cold water contains more oxygen making them possible to breathe through skin.

Apart from this frog only three other amphibians are found to evolve without the lungs. They are two species of salamander and caecilian a worm like creature.

The biologist believe that the lungs may have made the frogs ancestors to optimistic in the fast flowing waters increasing the risk of being swept away.

Cone snail

Cone snail is the popular species of the snail family. Their scientific name is conidae. These snails have cone shaped shell, fleshy foot different from other snails. They are mainly found in Indian and Pacific Ocean, Caribbean and red sea and the in the coast of Florida. Many of these species live near the coral reef. The subspecies of the cone snail are found under the rocks. These can be seen even in Australia.

Cone snails are medium sized predators. The shell of this snail ranges in the not less than 9 inches. The shell has the shape of an ice cream cone. The narrow end of the shell is the anterior end of the snail.

Cone snails are carnivorous animals and are predators. They hunt on the worms, small fish, mollusks and other cone snails for their food. This type of snail uses the venomous harpoon to catch the fast moving prey as they are slow movers. This venom of the adult snail is harmful to the humans as they might kill them.

The cone snails are attracted to the human eyes by their bright colors and patterns. This coloration tends the human to lift the animal and keep them in their hand. But this highly risky and we should avoid contact with this species. As this snail has the ability to sting on the human body and the harpoon can penetrate even through the gloves and suits. The toxins of this snail are more likely to the ones of the puffer fish and blue ringed octopus.

Half zebra and half horse

An animal that lived before 1883 is Quagga that was once found in huge numbers in South Africa Cape Province and in the southern part of the Orange Free State.

• Kingdom: Animalia


• Phylum: Chordata


• Class: Mammalia


• Order: Perissodactyla


• Family: Equidae

This animal belongs to the subspecies of the plain zebra, but it is has the vivid marks of zebra in the front part of the body only. The stripes are faded in the mid-section and the inter stripe space became wider and plain brown appears in the hindquarter and with withers is about 1.30 meters long.

In 1788 Quagga was classified in to an individual species and a great confusion revolved around the naturalists and explores since no two zebras were same. So because of the great confusion and the farmers hunting the quagga this species became extinct.

For meat and leather the Quagga were hunted by the South African farmers. The DNA study about the extinct animals was first started from Quagga.

Yeti Crab

This crab was discovered in 2005 along the South Pacific Ocean. The scientific name is Kiwa hirsuta. It is approximately 6 inches long. This creature is notable for its silky blond resembling fur covering the thoracic legs and claws.

This creature was found about 1,500 km south of Easter Island, at a depth of 7,200 feet living on hydrothermal vents. This species form a new genus and family called Kiwaidae. The animal is thought to be blind since it has strongly reduced eyes which lack pigments.

This crab gets rid of the poisonous minerals in the water emitted by the hydrothermal vents by the filamentous bacteria contained in the pincers. It feed on bacteria. It also feed on the green algae and small shrimp.

Australian reptiles and dangerous creatures

Snakes, lizards, and crocodiles are reptiles that like to live in the warm climate of Australia. Crocodiles live in rivers in the north. Snakes mostly poisonous live nearly everywhere in Australia. More than 500 different kinds of lizards live in Australia. Some look scary but none are poisonous. The frill necked lizard tries to look bigger to frighten its enemies. It shows its frill stands on its hind legs and hisses. The Australian taipan is one of the most poisonous snakes in the world.

Australian dangerous animals include poisonous spiders. The funnel web spider and the red back spider both have poisonous fangs but they catch their food using their web. A bit from the funnel web spider can kill a person if they don’t receive an antidote quickly. The dingo is a wild dog and is Australia’s largest predator. Dingoes hunt and eat wallabies, young kangaroos, and sheep. The Tasmanian devil is a carnivorous marsupial cat. It lives in caves on the island of Tasmania.

The Tasmanian devil uses its strong teeth and jaws to crush small animals. It eats everything – fur, feathers and bone. Fierce Tasmanian devils even eat dead animals.

Australian birds

Australia has 700 species of native birds. Two of them, the cassowary and the emu, have strong legs and can run as fast as cars in the city traffic. Neither bird can fly. Emu chicks lose their stripes as they grow older.

The kookaburra is famous for its laughing call, which tells other kookaburras to keep away. Kookaburras eat insects and small animals such as lizards. They even eat snakes.

Flocks of parrot are one of Australia most colorful sights. These beautiful birds include budgerigars, galahs and cockatiels.

Most Australians parrot lay their eggs in hollow trees or branches. They eat seeds, fruits, nectar and insects. Some also eat pollen brightly colored rainbow lorikeets have slender bills to help them eat nectar and pollen.

Rhynochocyon udzumgwensis

This grotesquely looking creature was discovered in African country. It is named as Rhynochocyon udzumgwensis. This was first found in Ndundulu forest in Tanzania’s udzungwa mountains in 2005 by a camera trap. It is of giant shrew type and this cat sized animal looks like a cross between a small antelope and a small ant eater. To describe about its physical appearance: it has a grey face, elastic snout, amber colored body, jet-black rump and it stands on spindly legs. This mammal weighs about 700g and 30 cm in length. This animal uses its long nose to flick insect for its living. This animal cannot be related to dog or cat you interact with but this has unusual look and their behavioral category is so unique and interesting.

What is an animal of Australia?

An animal of Australia lives only in Australia. It is called a native animal because it lived there before the first people came. Australia is an enormous continent in the South Seas. It has surrounded by vast oceans for millions of years.

A marsupial is an animal that carries its baby in a pouch. Australia has more marsupials than anywhere else in the world.

Marsupial babies are very small when they are born. The baby crawls through its mother’s fur and into her pouch. The pouch is like a pocket that protects the baby until it is big enough to survive on its own. Inside the pouch the baby feeds on its mother’s milk.

Kangaroos are large marsupials with strong back legs and small front paws. Koalas are small marsupials that live in eucalyptus or gum trees. The diprotodan was the biggest marsupial that ever lived in Australia. It looked like a wombat but was as big as rhinoceros. Wallabies, euros and wallaroos are all smaller members of the kangaroo family.

Lord Howe Island Stick Insect

Scientific Name: Drycocelus Australis

Common Names: Lord Howe Island Phasmid, Land Lobster

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Hexapoda

Order: Phasmatodea

Family: Phasmatidae

Lord Howe Island Stick insect is a heavy bodied insect which looks honey brown in color. It has white streak along its side. These nocturnal species lack the ability to fly. The growth capacity of the adult is up to 15 cm and it weighs about 25g. Female Howe weighs the most than the male and it also has a hook on its leg which stronger. Howe can easily walk and run in the ground while other insects find difficult for it.

On an average the female hawe is capable of laying 300 eggs in her lifetime. Usually the stick insects lay eggs in the tree and allow the eggs to fall to the ground. But female hawe bury its abdomen into the soil to lay eggs. The eggs are 4 mm long. Before hatching the eggs nurture under the soil for six and a half months. Young ones of the hawe appear in bright green color.

These insects have forested areas as their habitat. They also shelter themselves in a hollow place formed by the plant debris.

Woodchucks

Woodchucks are common and abundant in Massachusetts. They are found everywhere in the state except on Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket. Often called "groundhogs" or "whistle-pigs," they are not in the pig family at all. Woodchucks are burrowing members of the squirrel family (Sciuridae), which includes tree squirrels, flying squirrels, and chipmunks. In the western U.S., there are five related species called "marmots."

Description:

Woodchucks (Marmota monax) are medium-sized, chunky, ground-dwelling squirrels. Males are larger than females, but otherwise the sexes look similar. Adults measure 20-27½ inches in total length, with the tail averaging 4-7 inches. Adult weight will vary widely through the year, from an average of 7 pounds in the early spring to an average of 10½ pounds in the fall. This is because they are deep hibernators, and their weight will differ substantially between den entry and emergence.

The woodchuck has rather coarse, reddish-brown fur grizzled with guard hairs that are gray with yellow tips; brown or black tail, legs, and feet; and a black face. Melanistic (black) animals occur but are uncommon. Woodchucks have short powerful legs and short ears. The incisor teeth grow continually and must be worn down when feeding or else the tooth will grow to a length that injures or impairs the animal.

Habitat:

Woodchucks are an "edge" species, living in hedgerows or brush clumps along old fields, pastures, or croplands intermixed with small woodlands. Burrows are dug in well-drained soil along woodland edges and brushy hedgerows, often on rather steep slopes. The animal will also burrow under sheds, porches, decks, or walkways. Burrows are a critical feature of their life style, and typically include multiple entrances. The main shaft may be up to 50 feet in length, with many side passages. The 'chuck usually piles up a mound of dirt and rocks at the burrow entrance, but the entry may otherwise be well-concealed.

Foods:

Woodchucks are generalist plant feeders, consuming a wide variety of herbaceous (soft or leafy) vegetation. Studies in Maryland identified 34 plants while a study in Pennsylvania found 46 that were eaten by woodchucks. Clover, wild lettuce, grasses, chickweed, and dandelion appeared among the preferred species. The animals also readily eat hay grasses, alfalfa, corn, and a variety of common garden or commercial crops. Woodchucks readily climb trees and may feed on leaves of certain species, such as mulberry. They may also gnaw woody stems or trees, primarily in spring.

Reproduction:

Woodchucks mate in March and April shortly after emergence from hibernation. They can first breed as yearlings (i.e., in their second summer), however only 20-40% of female yearlings do breed. The tiny, feeble young are born in the burrows after a gestation period of 30-32 days. Based on data from studies of captive animals, litter size averages four to five young. The pups emerge from the den at about 33 days and are weaned at about 42 days.

Activity:

Woodchucks are typically daytime animals. During most of the year, their activity peaks in mid-morning and again in the late afternoon, but declines at mid-day. Early and late in the season they may be active only in the afternoon. They enter hibernation in late fall and emerge in early spring. The hibernation period is about 4-4½ months in Pennsylvania and 5 months in upper New York. Their home range is determined by food availability, but is typically between ¾-2¼ acres. Home ranges of adult males may overlap those of females, but usually not those of other males. Woodchucks disperse from their birth area when less than 1 year old, females traveling perhaps ¼ mile and males mile. Woodchucks are quite wary and on the alert around their burrow entrance and while feeding.

Pig Fights Lion, Jaguar

Flying Mammals Bats

The vegetarians

Australia has some of the world's largest fruit bats. Many of these can be seen throughout the Wet Tropics, particularly at dusk when they leave their camps in the trees to forage for food during the night. Their main diet is nectar and fruits and they play a vital role in the dispersal of rainforest seeds. They will also take pollen and help to cross-pollinate flowers as they lap nectar. These bats are common in backyard gardens, too - especially when the pawpaws (papaya) have ripened!

The most common is the Spectacled Flying-fox (Pteropus conspiculatus) which boasts a wingspan of roughly one metre (3 feet). A good place to see these impressive bats rise up from the canopy and depart for their daily feed is from a boat on the Daintree River. There are many areas though, even in the inner suburbs of Cairns, where flying foxes can be seen hanging from tree branches during the day. A single young is produced in late spring and females are capable of reproduction at two years of age. These bats have excellent vision and sense of smell and can travel up to 20km in one night in search of food.

Not all the fruit bats are so large. They range in size down to the tiniest Queensland species, the Blossom Bat (Syconmycteris australis), with a body only 5cm (2 inches) long and weighing in at a meagre 15 grams (half an ounce). It shelters under leaves during the day but at night, its pointed snout and brush tongue (similar to the lorikeets) allow it to feast on the nectar hidden deep in flowers, making it an important specialist pollinator of the rainforest.

Some other flying-foxes to look for in this area are the Black (Pteropus alecto), the Little Red (Pteropus scapulatus) and the striking Tube-nosed (Nyctimene robinsoni), easily identified by the yellow spots on its wings.

The insect terminators

The Blossom Bat described above might be a heavyweight compared to some of the insect eating bats! These are the sonar-equipped bats whose calls sound like high pitched shrieks and clicks. Another name for them is microbats (as opposed to the fruit bats which are also called megabats).

There are many species of microbats and identification often requires trapping and detailed examination by an expert. Sophisticated technology is also being used to identify bats by electronic signature analysis of their calls. The majority of microbats roost in caves but several species use tree hollows, tunnels, roofs and under loose tree bark. Most of these bats are very small, having bodies as light as 4 grams (.15 of an ounce) although many of the Wet Tropics species are about 20 grams (.7 of an ounce) and are 4 to 6 cm (1 ½ to 2 ½ inches) long.

Insectivorous bats are usually seen around streetlights at dusk and appear like large, fast flying insects themselves, whirling and turning as they use their sonar to catch insects in mid-flight. When spotlighting in the forest, flashlight beams can attract moths, which in turn, attract microbats. Flashes of their wings can be seen as the bats pursue their prey through the beam of light.

We hear so many reports of wildlife facing extinction, that the story of the Tube-nosed Insectivorous Bat is welcome news. Once credited with being Australia’s rarest mammal, this tiny microbat (it weighs 8 grams) has made a dramatic reappearance thanks to new research techniques. Until 1994 only six of these bats had ever been caught, all of them in the Wet Tropics. But with new trapping techniques - in particular a harp trap of superfine fishing line which fools their sonar, and recent major advances in bat call detection, sensitivity and analysis - many more of these bats have been found in various locations around the World Heritage Area. Tiny transmitters also have been used to track animals to communal nesting sites and learn more about their behaviour. While the bat is still classified as rare, scientific research has been able to shed new light on how we can protect its habitat to help ensure its continuing survival.

The Tree Kangaroos

Lucky you are if you come across a tree-kangaroo in the forest and actually get to see it! Often, the only evidence of a tree-kangaroo's presence is the sudden crash of leaves and branches followed by a thud as the very shy tree-kangaroo jumps from its lofty hiding spot and flees into the bush. Some tree-kangaroo sightings are simply that of a long, brown furry tail disappearing into the undergrowth.

The Wet Tropics is home to Lumholtz's and Bennett's Tree-kangaroos. Both stand no more than 60cm (2 feet) tall but their tails are almost a metre (3 feet) long. They spend most of their time in the tree canopy feeding on leaves and fruits.

The Lumholtz's Tree-kangaroo

Lumholtz's Tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus lumholtzi) occurs mostly at high altitudes between Kirrama (in the southern Wet Tropics area) to Mt Spurgeon (in the northern Wet Tropics but south of the Daintree River). A generally solitary animal, small groups of up to four can sometimes be seen. A single young is produced and there appears to be no specific breeding season. It is nocturnal and spends the day crouched on a branch sleeping.

The Bennett's Tree-kangaroo

Bennett's Tree-kangaroo - Photo by Michael ProcivA little larger than Lumholtz's Tree-kangaroo is the Bennett's Tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus bennettianus). It resides at high and low altitudes north of the Daintree River in an area of only about 70km by 50km (44 miles by 31 miles).

Possums and Gliders

The Wet Tropics region supports the highest possum diversity in Australia. This exceptional diversity is even more extraordinary in that there are five possums which are endemic (found nowhere else). All of them except one - the Mahogany Glider - are rainforest specialists. They are the Herbert River Ringtail (Pseudocheirus herbertensis), the Lemuroid Ringtail (Hemibelideus lemuroides) brown and rare white colour morph, the Green Ringtail (Pseudochirops archeri) and the Daintree Ringtail (Pseudocheirus cinereus).

The rainforest species are restricted to the uplands and, as a consequence, they occur as a number of isolated populations. One example is the Lemuroid Possum which occurs only above 550 metres on the Atherton Tablelands but which has a smaller population on the Carbine Tablelands. The Carbine population of the Lemuroid occurs only above 1,000 metres and is characterised by many more "white" furred individuals.

Other possums and gliders can also be found in the Wet Tropics:

* the black and white Striped Possum;
* the tiny Long-tailed Pygmy Possum also found in New Guinea;
* the Squirrel, Greater, Feathertail and Sugar Gliders;
* the Yellow-bellied Glider, also sometimes called the Fluffy Glider;
* the Coppery Brushtail (a colour form of the very common Brushtail Possum which ranges down the east coast of Australia);and
* the Common Ringtail.

Mahogany GliderThe critically endangered Mahogany Glider (Petaurus gracilis) was thought to have been extinct since the 1800's but a living specimen was found in 1989. This glider is not rainforest dependent and prefers low woodland on swampy coastal plains, beach ridges and Melaleuca swamps. It eats nectar, tree sap, tree gum, lichens and invertebrates. This glider has been the subject of a government program to buy back critical habitat for the species as land clearing is the greatest threat to the glider's survival and most of its range falls outside the protective status of World Heritage.

Green Ringtail - Photo by Mike TrenerryThe Green Ringtail is so named for the strange illusion of colour provided by the black, yellow and white banding on each hair of its thick fur. It is easy to recognize during spotlighting as it has white patches below its ears and eyes. This possum's diet consists almost entirely of low protein, high fibre leaves, especially those of fig trees, and will also take ripe figs. The Green is the most solitary of the possums and does not have a den. It sleeps on branches by curling itself forward so that it resembles a large furry ball. This lack of a den may also explain why its single young clings to its mother's back longer than any other possum. Predators of this quiet and sedate possum include the Rufous Owl, the Spotted-tailed Quoll and the Amethystine Python.

The emblem of the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service is an attractive black and white ringtail possum from upland and highland altitudes. The Herbert River Ringtail is also known affectionately as 'Herbie'. This ringtail likes leaves with a very high protein content, unlike the Green Ringtail. Their den is usually in a tree hollow or in large epiphytic ferns. Two young are produced and after nearly four months, they are ready to leave the pouch. The brown juveniles only require another two weeks being carried on their mother's back before they are ready to strike out on their own.

The White-tailed Rat

While most rodents will make a hasty retreat from human visitors, one not so easily intimidated is the White-tailed Rat (Uromys caudimaculatus). This large rat has a body length of 30cm (1 foot) and the end half of its 33cm (13 inch) tail is white and without fur (which is the easiest way to identify them). The White-tailed Rat can be seen on the forest floor at night but it is just as likely to be seen climbing around tree branches. Although most rodents are known for their powerful teeth, this one can eat through the hardest of seed coats. The next time you find a coconut on the ground with a perfectly round hole about 2 cm (3/4 inch) in diameter drilled through it, you will know that a White-tailed Rat found it first!

Another ground-dweller is quite the predator. An attractive but elusive night-time hunter of both the forest floor and the canopy is the Spotted-tailed Quoll, also known as the Tiger Quoll. There are two species of quoll in the Wet Tropics: the northern subspecies of the Spotted-tailed Quoll (Dasyurus maculatus gracilis) and the smaller Northern Quoll (D. hallucatus). They are well known for their aggressive dispositions, described in books as "pugnacious", "ferocious" and "savage". The Quoll is a carnivore, preferring rodents, small macropods, birds and reptiles, although large insects, some fruit and even carrion is included in their diet. The Quolls are not quite standard marsupials in that they don't have a real pouch. During breeding season, the skin around the female's nipple area extends into a flap which partially covers the young. Females have 6 teats but the number of young born can range from one to eight. Young remain in the pseudo-pouch for several weeks before being left in a nest hollow or cave and attended to by the female. Independence is usually reached by 18 weeks and sexual maturity is at one year.

There are many other mammals to look for in the Wet Tropics such as Melomys (native rats), Hydromys (the water rat whose fine swimming abilities evoke images of the river otter), Northern Brown Bandicoots (often seen darting across roads at night), their paler rainforest cousins the Long-nosed Bandicoot, Agile Wallabies (look for them hanging around the golf courses of the Northern Beaches area of Cairns), and the adorable Red-legged Pademelon.

The Tropical Bettong

Another interesting but very rare ground-dwelling mammal is the Tropical Bettong (Bettongia tropica). This strictly nocturnal animal has been found at only a few places in the Wet Tropics but not normally in rainforest, preferring the more open forest types on the drier western side of the Great Dividing Range. Looking a bit like a small kangaroo bent forward but having a pointed face shape, it feeds mostly on fungi and seems to have a special digestive system to obtain nutrients from this unusual diet.

The Musky Rat-kangaroo

In the morning look for the Musky Rat-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus), a very dark brown marsupial macropod (kangaroo family) whose body is only about 23cm (9 inches) long foraging for fruits on the rainforest floor. This animal is regularly seen around the volcanic lakes Eacham and Barrine and around the bases of the famous Curtain Fig and Cathredral Fig trees on the Atherton Tablelands. The Musky Rat-kangaroo prefers the wetter parts of the forest and feeds on fallen fruits found in the leaf litter as well as small invertebrates such as earthworms and grasshoppers. They give birth to two or three babies which stay in their mother's pouch for about 21 weeks before emerging to spend most of their time in their forest floor nest. When they are a little older, they will accompany the female on her feeding rounds.

Mammals - General Information

The Wet Tropics region is home to about a third of Australia's 315 mammal species - including unique green possums, fierce marsupial cats, kangaroos which climb trees and rare bats. As well as relatively common mammals like the platypus and wallaby which are widespread over the continent, the Wet Tropics is home to 13 mammal species which are found nowhere else in the world. All except two of them - the endangered Tropical Bettong and Mahogany Glider - are rainforest dwellers. They include two tree-kangaroos, a rat-kangaroo, four ringtail possums, a melomys and an antechinus.

Other Wet Tropics mammals are found in rainforest to the north in Cape York - the striped possum, prehensile-tailed rat, and the white-tailed Rat. Others also occur in to the south - the yellow-footed antechinus, spotted-tailed quoll and the white-footed dunnart (found 4000km south in Victoria and Tasmania).

Some of the Wet Tropics rainforest species have close relatives in New Guinea and Southeast Asia. When Australia became isolated after the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana, it drifted northward. About 15 million years ago it bumped into the Asian continental place. This collision allowed an exchange to take place between two sets of animals and plants which had evolved in isolation. Asian flora and fauna, including many placental rats, moved into Australia. At the same time Australian species moved north. Many of them colonised New Guinea, a new high altitude land mass created by the 'bow wave' of Australia's northerly drift. As a result, some of the unusual mammals of the Wet Tropics also live with our northern neighbours - the Long-tailed Pygmy Possum in Papua New Guinea and the Tube-nosed Insectivorous Bat in Southeast Asia.

Reptiles - Geckos and Skinks

Two of Australia's largest geckos are Wet Tropics primitive endemics. The first is the lanky 20 cm Chameleon Gecko with its distinctive white-ringed tail. Once this tail is shed and regrown, the white-rings are absent leaving the entire tail dark brown with black flecks. The Chameleon Gecko(Carphodactylus laevis) sleeps in leaf litter through the day and forages on the ground or on tree trunks at night.

Another awesome specimen is the 23 cm Northern Leaf-tailed Gecko with its shield-shaped tail. This Australian endemic lizard has a very flat body and tail with spindly arms and legs and sharp clawed toes instead of pads. The entire body is covered with a variable, reticulated pattern and the body is rough to the touch with visible, spiky scales running along the outer edges of the body. The irregular pattern even appears in its eyes! Like the Chameleon Gecko, the Leaf-tailed Gecko (Saltuarius cornutus) also forages at night but it prefers to shelter in crevices in trees during the day.


There are many skinks in the Wet Tropics and they are usually small and difficult to identify but there is one major exception - in fact, it's called the Major Skink - and it reaches a total length of 39 cm (15 ½ inches)! It is a gold colour down the back with some dark flecking. The sides are very dark with rows of pale flecks that could be considered stripes if they were adjoined better. The eye is brown or gold. The Major Skink (Egernia frerei) has a diverse diet which includes snails, insects, spiders, fruit and small lizards. Although it likes to bask in the sun, it is wary so it is not often seen and darts back into a burrow dug under a rock or into a rotting log.

Reptiles - Snakes of the Rainforest

Australia is known for its large number of extremely venomous snakes but we have at least 10 python species as well. The largest snake in the country is a very common Wet Tropics 'celebrity' which is often seen by visitors and which frequently visits the area's human inhabitants, especially those who keep domestic animals.

The Amethystine Python (also known locally as a Scrub Python or Scrubbie) has been confirmed at 7 meters long but anecdotal accounts suggest that larger individuals have been seen. It is very distinctive with a tan diamond pattern along its length and is often seen crossing roads in the rainforest at night.

People living on the edge of the bush or people keeping birds often report them in their yards. Pythons feed on warm-blooded animals and have heat-seeking pits in their jaw to locate their heat-emitting prey. Domestic pets such as small dogs, cats, chickens and parrots are frequently an easy target of the Scrubbie and aviaries must be 'snake proof' to protect their residents.

The Amethystine Python (Morelia amethistina) usually has a docile nature however, it is not advisable to approach or attempt to handle any snake no matter how tame it might seem. A bite from this snake could result in a severe wound that would probably bleed profusely. Additionally, a python's body is almost entirely muscle so a large individual is extraordinarily powerful. Once coiled around your body, the combined strength of several people might be required to remove it.

Mention venomous snakes and the typical response is that you're talking about a dangerous snake - but that is not necessarily so! There are two types of poisonous snakes in Australia. One group is called the Elapids and these snakes distribute their venom through their front fangs. The other group is the Colubrids and some of these also have venom glands but the toxin is dispersed through fangs in the back of their mouths. To receive a dose of the Colubrid's venom, you'd basically have to stick your finger down its throat!

The Brown Tree Snake is often seen in and out of the forest at night - it is sometimes called the night tiger. The Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis) is normally about 1.4 metres (4 ½ feet) long and it is not dangerous to us - but birds, small mammals and lizards would not like to meet one.

A group of Australian snakes that we need not fear but should have a healthy respect for and that is the Elapids - the front fanged snakes. Even though this group has the capability to be harmful, the majority are not. Only a few of these have aggressive or easily excitable dispositions. It is a good rule of thumb for any snake you encounter to leave them alone and just admire them from a distance.

Little in size does not necessarily mean little in threat. The Small-eyed snake is shiny black above and cream or pinkish below and it's only about 50cm (20 inches) long but it should still be admired from a reasonable distance. The likelihood of the casual visitor seeing one in the forest or heathland is not great however, as this snake is shy and nocturnal. It normally lives under rocks or logs so be observant when climbing over these during night bushwalks. This Small-eyed Snake (Rhinoplocephalus nigrescens) bears live young - usually four or five and its favourite food is lizards.

Reptiles - Dragons and Lizards

While it might seem out of the ordinary for a visitor to the World Heritage Area to have a lizard on their "must see" list, the Boyd's Forest Dragon is well worth such a distinction. This dragon conjures up images of the giant lizards who battled in the Jules Verne tale 'Journey to the Centre of the Earth' with its colourful, large-scaled head and line of curved spikes down its back. Boyd's Forest Dragon (Hypsilurus boydii) is the epitome of cryptic in its closed canopy rainforest habitat and is a challenge to spot even when it is directly in front of you. It is often found clinging vertically to a tree trunk with its head uppermost although the 50 cm long Boyd's has been observed by herpetologists to sometimes sleep in a horizontal position on branches. Boyd's Forest Dragon was probably one of our immigrants from Southeast Asia when a land bridge to New Guinea existed during an ice age.

While not a rainforest endemic, the Lace Monitor deserves a mention due to its size, likelihood of being seen by visitors and its disposition. Up to 1.5 metres in length, it is an impressive beast to observe. This lizard is arboreal and is a major predator of birds' nests but it also eats reptiles, small mammals, large insects - even carrion and food scraps. Lace Monitors (Varanus varius) can sometimes be seen sauntering confidently through campgrounds, seemingly unafraid of people, while they search for unattended plates of food. However, if startled or threatened, they will run up the nearest tree trunk, quick as a flash!

Crocodiles have some very interesting capabilities

• they can hold their breath underwater for up to one and a half hours
• they have a lingual gland at the back of the throat that removes salt from their body
• their brain is only the size of a walnut but it still allows enough 'processing' to take place to enable the animal to make a decision about whether to attack or not
• crocs replace their teeth by growing new ones inside old ones which eventually fall out
• the stomach of the crocodile is only about the size of a basketball and contrary to legends and 'old wives' tales', crocs do not store their food - they eat it right away
• of 23 species of crocodiles worldwide, ours is considered the most aggressive

While this powerful animal can easily tear a large animal apart, it also exhibits the gentlest behaviour with its offspring. The croc builds a mound to incubate its eggs (like the megapodes, the Scrub fowl and the Brush Turkey) and when its 50 or so eggs have hatched and the young have climbed to the surface, the female picks them up in her mouth and carries them carefully down to the water. Males can be predators of their own young but females are very protective and stay close to the mound during the three months the eggs are incubating (November to March).

Photographed by Micheal CermakThe best and safest place to see crocodiles might be at a fauna park. There are river tours which feature the estuarine crocodile as a draw card, but it is dependent on the time of year as to whether wild crocodiles can be seen. The wet season temperatures are usually too hot so the crocodiles submerge to the river bottom during the day. However, in the cooler winter months, crocs bask on the banks of some rivers. After decades of hunting, however, many crocs have become wary of the sound of boat motors so even the winter visitor might only see the tell-tale "slide" on the bank instead of the animal (slides are the tail and footprint impression left on the muddy bank after a crocodile has darted into the water).

In Cairns, a crocodile removal program is in progress for all areas except the mangrove wetland system adjacent to Trinity Inlet (Cairns harbour). All Estuarine crocodiles are trapped and relocated to remote areas. While this trial program reduces the likelihood of a human-croc encounter in the Cairns area, it also involves a research component so that we can learn more about the crocodile's ecology and survival rates once moved.

Reptiles - Crocodiles

Although the Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is not confined to the Wet Tropics, it is by far the best known reptile of Tropical North Queensland. For an animal of such power and ability to exist over tens of millions of years, the crocodile is almost defenceless against the power that human fear creates.

There have been occasional attacks on people in developed and remote areas of Tropical North Queensland and these receive more than ample publicity. However, in many cases, such traumatic events have been the result of less than careful judgement. Cleaning fish on the edge of a river or near a boat ramp is to a crocodile what 'chumming' is to a shark. (Chum is a slaughterhouse concoction poured off the side of a boat to attract sharks.) Going for a midnight swim in an estuary is just as much a gamble as picking up a cobra and wrapping it around your neck! But such accidents have happened and these have a great impact on people's fear and hatred of the crocodile - an animal which deserves a healthy respect.

The estuarine crocodile is an ancient species and one which can live a long time - up to 100 years - but many of the oldest and largest crocs were hunted out by the 1970's. Crocodiles up to 8.4 metres (28 feet) long have been verified in the past but nowadays, most crocs only reach about 5 metres. They are fully protected (including their eggs) and regulated crocodile farms provide controlled products (meat and skins) for domestic and international trade.

Jaguar vs Crocodile(Caiman)

The Majestic Tiger

One of the most ferocious and fascinating species of wildlife, the tiger has always conquered people’s imagination. Imagine if future generations did not get a chance to know the royal animal of jungle. It is sad but true that the tiger is facing extinction. Several subspecies, like the Bengal, the Sumatran and the South China tigers, have been designated as endangered species.

The decline of this majestic animal is due to poaching for its fur, deforestation and encroachment into their habitat. Our country has the maximum number of wild tigers in the world. But over population has led to a constant conflict between man and animal. As the numbers dwindled, a conservation effort called Project Tiger was set up in 1973.

Project Tiger has been a successful venture in preserving the existing number of wild tigers. It aims at preventing and fighting poachers, developing tiger reserves and preservation of the jungles ecosystem. Making people aware of the danger to our national animal is the only way by which the tiger can regain its lost glory.

The Tasmanian Taiger

Australia is home to some of the world's most unusual and mysterious wildlife. Our native animals, such as the platypus, the koala and the kangaroo, have been a source of wonder and surprise to people the world over. But perhaps our most mysterious animal is the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger, which is considered to have become extinct in 1936.

There are many reasons why people are fascinated by this animal. Perhaps it is its name and the romantic notion of Australia having its own 'tiger'. Perhaps it is its sad history since European settlement, or the fact that there are many people who claim they have seen a Tasmanian tiger and believe it may not be extinct after all.

What was a Tasmanian Tiger?

The now-extinct Tasmanian tiger. Image courtesy of Department of Primary Industry, Water and the Environment, Tasmania.

The full scientific name for the Tasmanian Tiger is Thylacinus cynocephalis. Roughly translated, this means pouched dog with a wolf's head.

Modern history records the thylacine as being native to Tasmania. However scientists believe it was once widespread throughout mainland Australia, Tasmania and even Papua New Guinea.

The main evidence for this belief is the presence of thylacine-like animals in Aboriginal rock-paintings from northern Australia, including the Kimberley region of Western Australia, the Upper East Alligator region of Deaf Adder Creek and Cadell River crossing in the Northern Territory.

Numerous thylacine bones have been found in mainland Australia. Some of these bones have been dated at about 2,200 years old. Although we can't be sure what happened to the thylacines of mainland Australia and Papua New Guinea, scientists suspect that competition for food and predators such as the dingo had a lot to do with their disappearance.

By the time Europeans settled in Australia, the thylacine was only found in the coastal and plains regions of Tasmania. Thylacines were quite common and widespread when Tasmania was first settled in 1803, and the Aboriginal people of Tasmania used the thylacine as a food item.

The Lion's Den! - Extreme Animals

Gorilla Population Increases in the Congo

A recent census by the Wildlife Conservation Society indicates there are currently 125,000 western lowland gorillas in the northern part of the Congo. Estimates from the previous two decades placed the entire population of western lowland gorillas found in seven Central African nations at 50,000.

“These figures show that northern Republic of Congo contains the mother lode of gorillas,” said Steven E. Sanderson, president of the Wildlife Conservation Society. “It also shows that conservation in the Republic of Congo is working. This discovery should be a rallying cry for the world that we can protect other vulnerable and endangered species, whether they be gorillas in Africa, tigers in India, or lemurs in Madagascar.”

Paula J. Dobriansky, the under secretary for democracy and global affairs at the U.S. Department of State, agrees: “For the first time in recent memory, we are hearing good news about an endangered species. What that tells us is that conservation strategies are vital, and they are working.” Dobriansky addressed a Wildlife Conservation Society event September 15.

The new results showed more than 125,000 western lowland gorillas living in two adjacent regions covering 47,000 square kilometers (18,000 square miles) in the northern part of the Congo. Population densities ranged as high as eight individuals per square kilometer in one particularly rich forest patch, which ranks as among the highest densities for gorilla populations ever recorded, according to a statement by the Wildlife Conservation Society.

Spring Viremia Carp

Introduction

Spring viremia of carp (SVC) is a viral disease of fish, primarily common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Although the disease and its causative agent, spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) or Rhabdovirus carpio, was first described in 1971, there is evidence that the disease has been present in Europe for at least 50 years and, potentially, since the Middle Ages. Before the disease was recognized, it was variously called infectious dropsy, infectious ascites, hemorrhagic septicemia, or rubella.

In Europe, the disease has had substantial impact on the production of carp, with estimated losses of 10–15 percent of 1–year–old carp or about 4,000 tons annually. In some cases, mortality rates of young carp can reach 70 percent. This impact of the disease has led to its listing by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) as notifiable.

Susceptible species and geographical distribution

Although common carp, which includes the variety called koi carp, is the main species of fish affected by SVC, there have been several other species that are susceptible to the disease under non–experimental (natural) conditions. These species include crucian carp (Carassius carassius), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), goldfish (Carassius auratus), tench (Tinca tinca), and sheatfish (Silurus glanis).

Under experimental conditions, other species including roach (Rutilus rutilus), pike (Esox lucius), guppy (Lebistes reticulates), pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), goldfish (Carassius auratus), zebra danios (Brachydanio rerio), and golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas) have been found to be susceptible to the disease.

Many species in the minnow family (Cyprinidae) are indigenous to the United States, including endangered species; the susceptibility of these has not yet been determined either under natural or experimental conditions. A SVC–like virus has been isolated from diseased penaeid shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris and P. vannamei).

Historically, SVC has been reported from many countries in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, but recently the disease has been reported in South and North America as well.

Clinical signs of SVC

First signs of the disease may be a change in behavioral patterns of the fish. Fish may congregate in slow–flowing water, near pond banks, or lie on the bottom. Over time, the rate of respiration will decrease, as will reaction to stimulation and
swimming speed. As the disease progresses, the fish become sluggish and may swim and lie on their sides.

Externally, the fish can exhibit a number of non–specific physical signs including darkening of the skin, swollen abdomen, exophthalmia (pop–eye), hemorrhages in the skin, gills and anterior eye chamber, anemia and pale gills, and a protruding vent.

Internally, the signs are dominated by building up of fluid (edema) in all organs and in the body cavity, hemorrhages in the swim bladder, and inflammation of the intestines.

Temperature and seasonality

Research has shown that the optimal temperature for development of SVC in experimentally infected carp is between 16 and
17° C. At this temperature, 90 percent of the fish died within 5 to 17 days after being infected. At lower temperatures, 11–15° C, the percent of fish that died was similar but the mortality was delayed (2–3 weeks). Mortality was reduced at temperatures between 17 and 26° C. The optimum temperature for in vitro virus replication is 20–22° C. Other experiments have investigated the influence of increasing and decreasing temperatures on the rate of disease. Research has also demonstrated that a gradual decrease of temperature (11 down to 5° C) caused low mortality, while increasing temperature back to 20° C caused massive mortality as the temperature changed from 7 to 14° C.

These results correspond with the field observations that most SVC outbreaks occur in the spring with warming temperatures.

After water temperatures rise above 15–18° C, the immune system of carp becomes capable of rapid interferon and neutralizing antibody synthesis that suppresses viral replication. Thus, in the countries where SVC has been reported, there are only sporadic reports in June and July. The temperature constraints make tropical and subtropical climates unfavorable for SVC outbreaks. The replication of virus as temperatures rise also has implications for detecting virus in fish populations. All viral isolations for SVC were from samples taken in May when the water temperature was between 10 to 18° C. Virus detection likely would be more difficult during the other seasons of the year.

Transmission

Infected fish can shed virus in feces and possibly in urine and gill mucus. Horizontal transmission likely occurs when virus enters fish through the gills. Research has demonstrated that SVC was easily transmitted horizontally through water from
experimentally infected fish to uninfected fish. Reservoir hosts include sick fish and fish that have survived an outbreak. In addition to carp, other cultured and wild fish may serve as reservoirs for the disease. Vertical transmission may be possible since SVC virus has been found in ovarian fluids, but the lack of outbreaks among fry and fingerlings suggests that it is not an important route of transmission.

Parasites such as the carp louse, Argulus foliaceus, and the leech, Pisciola geometra, have been shown to be passive vectors in the transfer of disease to healthy carp. Mechanical vectors can also be a problem since SVCV can maintain infectivity for a long time in water or mud or after becoming dry.

Diagnosis

In 2000, OIE set the international standards for diagnosing SVC virus. The diagnosis of SVC in clinically infected fish can be accomplished through virus isolation or by using an immunological test such as direct immunofluorescence (IF) test or an enzyme–linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA). A virus neutralization (VN) test is the confirmatory identification test. Immunofluorescence tests and ELISAs should be followed by virus isolation and a VN test.

The OIE has specified criteria for declaring countries, zones, and aquaculture establishments free of SVC. The International Aquatic Animal Health Code and the Diagnostic Manual for Aquatic Animal Diseases have complete details on all of the
requirements so only some general criteria are presented here. The appropriate Web sites for these documents are listed at the end of the document. A country declared free must meet these conditions: 1) no recorded outbreak of SVC for at least 2 years; 2) no detection of virus in any of the susceptible fish species tested during an official surveillance scheme
during the past 2 years; and 3) requirements met for importing live fish from other countries.

For a zone to be declared free of SVC, both aquaculture establishments and wild populations containing susceptible fish species must have been tested in an official surveillance scheme and SVC must not have been detected in the past 2 years.

The zone must also be one or more entire catchment areas or be part of a catchment area where upstream migration of fish from downstream areas cannot occur.

For an aquaculture establishment to be declared free of SVC, it may be part of a free country or zone. An aquaculture establishment in an infected area can still be declared free if it: 1) has been tested under an official health surveillance scheme for at least 2 years without detection of SVCV; 2) is supplied by water from a spring, well, or borehole only and is free from wild fish; and 3) is not connected to a watercourse or there is a natural barrier that prevents the migration upstream of fish from downstream stretches of the waterway.

The OIE Diagnostic Manual for Aquatic Animal Disease has specifications for surveillance programs to achieve and maintain health status. Briefly, fish culture units on aquaculture establishments must be inspected twice annually for 2 years. Each inspection should be conducted in order to detect a 2 percent prevalence with 95 percent confidence level. This
represents collection of approximately 150 appropriate–age fish at times of the year clinical signs are most likely to be observed and isolating pathogens is the easiest. Ovarian fluid samples can be used if available. To maintain free status, twice annual inspections of 30 fish are required. Wild fish populations need to be sampled only once a year for 2 years and 150 fish from different fish crops may be pooled. Maintenance of health status of wild fish can only be attained by annual sampling of 150 fish including as many broodfish as possible.

Prevention

There are several recommendations for preventing the disease from becoming established on commercial farms. Using a source of water that is free from disease such as a spring or a well is necessary, especially in an endemic disease area, to exclude disease. Other on–farm measures include disinfection of eggs by iodophore treatment, regular physical and chemical disinfection of ponds, disinfection of equipment, and proper disposal of dead fish. Also, new fish being brought onto farms should be purchased from an SVC–free source. Movement of ornamental fish to shows and returning to
operations should be undertaken with caution.

Currently, no commercially available vaccine exists for SVC. However, some studies hold promise for the development of a vaccine.

Scrapie

Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease affecting the central nervous system of sheep and goats. It is among a number of diseases classified as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE). Infected flocks that contain a high percentage of susceptible animals can experience significant production losses. Over a period of several years the number of infected animals increases, and the age at onset of clinical signs decreases making these flocks economically unviable. Animals sold from infected flocks spread scrapie to other flocks.

The presence of scrapie in the United States also prevents the export of breeding stock, semen, and embryos to many other countries. TSEs are the subject of increased attention and concern because of the discovery of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle, the link between BSE and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) in people, and feline spongiform encephalopathy (FSE) in cats in Europe.

Pseudorabies

Pseudorabies is a viral disease most prevalent in swine, often causing newborn piglets to die. Older pigs can survive infection, becoming carriers of the pseudorabies virus for life. Other animals infected from swine die from pseudorabies, which is also known as Aujeszky's disease and "mad itch." Infected cattle and sheep can first show signs of pseudorabies by scratching and biting themselves. In dogs and cats, pseudorabies can cause sudden death. The virus does not cause illness in humans.

Equine Piroplasmosis

Introduction

In the fall of 2010, the United States will host the World Equestrian Games (WEG) at the
Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington, Kentucky. Because horses that are positive to equine
piroplasmosis (EP) will be able to participate in all disciplines including endurance, we expect an
increased interest in the disease. We have prepared this document to answer questions about EP
and the measures the United States will take to allow EP-positive horses to participate in the
WEG. If you have additional questions, we have provided references and contact information
for obtaining information below. Finally, we expect to update this document as additional
information becomes available before the WEG.

What is equine piroplasmosis (EP)?

EP is a tick-borne disease caused by two parasites, Babesia caballi and B. equi. Certain ticks are
biological vectors in which the parasite amplifies and then is transmitted to horses under certain
conditions. If horses become affected, fever, anemia, jaundice, hemoglobinuria, central nervous
system disturbances, and sometimes death may result. In the acute phase, some infected horses
are less severely affected and may show little or no symptoms with no decrease in performance.
Those that survive infection in the acute phase may carry the parasites for prolonged periods
during which they are potential sources of infection to other horses via tick-borne transmission or
mechanical transfer by biting ticks, needles, or surgical instruments.

Equine Viral Arteritis

What is EVA?

Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is a contagious disease caused by the equine arteritis virus (EAV). The virus occurs worldwide including mainland Europe.

There is no risk to human health or species other than eqidae.

How does the infection spread?

A. Routes of infection - All horses

Infection spreads through transmission of the virus between horses in 4 main ways:

• venereal infection of mares by stallions during mating
• artificially inseminating mares with semen from infectious stallions
• contact with aborted foetuses and other products of parturition
• direct contact in droplets (eg from coughing and snorting) from the respiratory tract

B. The Shedder Stallion

The stallion is a very important source of the virus. On infection, the virus localises in his accessory sex glands and the virus may be shed in his semen for several weeks afterwards, or for many months or years and possibly for life. After recovery from acute illness, his fertility is not affected and he will show no further clinical signs of infection even though he may still be infectious. Shedder stallions will infect susceptible mares during mating, or after insemination with the stallion's semen, and these mares may, in turn, infect in-contact animals via the respiratory route.

It is important to note that the shedder stallion is always seropositive (ie past or existing infection indicated in a blood test) but that a seropositive stallion is not necessarily a shedder.

Breeders using AI must note that the virus can survive in chilled and frozen semen.

C. Teasers

Teasers are also a potential source of the virus and should be subjected to the same precautions as stallions.

D. Mares

Available evidence indicates that the 'carrier' state does not occur in mares.

What are the clinical signs?

The variety and severity of clinical signs of EVA vary widely. Infection may be obvious or there may be no signs at all. Even when there are no signs, infection can still be transmitted and stallions might still become shedders.

EVA can cause abortions. Other signs include fever, depression, lethargy, stiff movement, runny nose, conjunctivitis, (‘pink eye’), swelling of the lower parts of the legs, around the eye and of the reproductive organs.

How is the Disease diagnosed?

Because of the variability or the possible absence of symptoms, clinical diagnosis is not always possible.
Laboratory diagnosis is therefore essential. This requires appropriate samples, which are nasopharyngeal swabs, heparinised or EDTA blood, semen, serum and possibly urine, to be taken by a veterinary surgeon and sent to a specialist laboratory. In blood samples, laboratories look for antibodies to the virus (serological test); in blood and other samples, they look for the virus itself (virus detection tests).

Where abortion may be EVA-related, detailed clinical information must be sent to the laboratory with the foetus and its membranes.

How is EVA treated?

A. There is no treatment available for EVA itself, although there may be treatments to alleviate some of its symptoms.

Is EVA is a notifiable disease?

In Great Britain, EVA is a notifiable disease under the Equine Viral Arteritis Order 1995.
It is a legal requirement to notify a Divisional Veterinary Manager (DVM) of the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) when:

• it is known or suspected that a stallion has the disease or is a carrier of the virus
• it is known or suspected that a mare which has been mated or subjected to Artificial Insemination in the last 14 days has become infected with the virus.

Full details of the exact notification requirements are in the EVA Order 1995.

EVA Vaccine

A vaccine (Artervac, Fort Dodge) is available on an Animal Test Certificate (or similar licence) in the UK, Ireland, France and Germany, but with different national restrictions on use. Consult your veterinary surgeon on uses allowed in your country. In the UK, the vaccine can be used for all horses.

There are data to show that Artervac is safe. There is also experimental efficacy data to show that it can protect horses 3 weeks after the second dose of vaccine is given. However, it is not yet clear how the vaccine will perform in the field. If it performs well, it will be an effective way of protecting stallions. Veterinary advice should be sought on vaccination timings and administration.

Vaccinated horses will become seropositive. Horses should therefore be blood tested immediately before vaccination to show that they were previously seronegative.

Details about the prior blood test and the vaccination, both primary and booster, should be recorded in the horse's passport.

Pre-Vaccination Blood Test

If the passport includes a section titled Laboratory Health Test, details about the test should be recorded in that section by a veterinary surgeon.

If the passport does not include a section titled Laboratory Health Test, or the horse does not have a passport, the following records, certified by a veterinary surgeon, should be kept:

1. Date when the pre-vaccination blood sample was taken.
2. Type of test.
3. Certificate from the laboratory showing the blood test result, and the identity of the laboratory that carried out the test.

Vaccination

Details should be recorded by a veterinary surgeon in the section of the passport titled Vaccinations Other Than For Equine Influenza. The details are the date and place when the vaccination was given, and the name and batch number of the vaccine.

If these details cannot be entered in a passport, a record of the same details, certified by a veterinary surgeon, should be kept.

A post-vaccination blood sample may be taken to confirm seroconversion as a result of either primary or booster vaccination. The same records as set out above for pre-vaccination tests should be kept.

The above records are important as evidence of previous seronegativity for breeding and export purposes. Some importing countries require this information for vaccinated horses, either in passports or official export certificates.

For official export certification purposes, samples for EVA blood testing must be sent to a Government laboratory, i.e. the Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Addlestone.

As the vaccine's efficacy is not yet fully known, owners should monitor the horse's antibody response after vaccination, in consultation with the veterinary surgeon.

Vaccination is not an alternative to good management.

The code of practice remains essential to prevent EVA.